Distribution of forests by climatic domain and income
In 2020, the world had 4.06 billion hectares of forest, 45% of which are found in the tropics, 27% in the boreal domain, 16% in the temperate zone, and 11% in the subtropics5. There is unevenness in the income of countries that make up forests in different climatic domains. High-income countries account for 67% of temperate forests, 42% of subtropical forests, 33% of boreal forests, and almost none of the tropical forests. On the other hand, tropical forests comprise 97% of the forest area of low-income countries and 90% of forests in lower middle-income countries. The majority (53%) of the world’s forest area are found in the upper middle-income countries while 25%, 14% and 8% are found in high-income, lower middle-income and low-income countries, respectively (Fig. 1).
Changes in forest area
The extent of boreal, temperate and subtropical forests have consistently increased between 1990 and 2020, although the rate of increase has slowed slightly in 2010–2020 compared to the two preceding decades. Net gains in forest area were the greatest in the subtropical domain. On the other hand, topical forests continue to be lost at a considerable rate, although the rate of loss has been decreasing (Fig. 2). Magnitude of net forest loss in the tropics far exceeds forest gains in the other climatic domains, with more than 90 percent of deforestation during 1990–2020 occurring in the tropical domain5.
Analyses of forest area change by national income reveals the widening gap between high and low income countries. From 1990 to 2000, there was a very high rate of forest loss among the group of countries that are presently in the upper middle-income category. However, the rate of loss has slowed substantially during the past 20 years, with the annual of loss of 5.1 million ha between 1990–2000 falling to 1.5 million ha/year between 2010 and 2020. Conversely, the rate of net forest loss is accelerating in low-income and lower middle-income countries, indicating deterioration of forest management in these countries. In the high-income countries, forest area has continued to increase and the rate of gain is increasing (Fig. 3).
Net forest loss during the previous 30 years have occurred almost entirely in the tropics, with the highest rate of loss occurring in the low-income countries (Table 1). For net gains in forest area, on the other hand, substantial increase between 1990 and 2020 was observed in the upper middle-income countries in temperate (10% increase) and subtropical (20% increase) domains. Boreal and temperate forests have remained relatively stable at the global level, while subtropical forests have expanded significantly.
Table 1
Net changes in forest area (percentage) 1990–2020 by climatic domain and income category
|
Boreal
|
Temperate
|
Subtropical
|
Tropical
|
Avg.
|
High-income
|
0.2%
|
3.6%
|
4.8%
|
-1.1%
|
2.4%
|
Upper middle-income
|
1.4%
|
10.4%
|
19.9%
|
-13.5%
|
-4.0%
|
Lower middle-income
|
-1.2%
|
9.1%
|
1.1%
|
-10.7%
|
-9.3%
|
Low-income
|
-
|
-11.8%*
|
9.7%**
|
-15.2%
|
-15.1%
|
Avg.
|
1.0%
|
5.4%
|
12.2%
|
-12.9%
|
|
* Forest loss entirely due to reduction of forest area in DPR Korea
** Forest gain entirely due to increase in forest area in Syria
|
Forest management objectives
Forests can be managed for one or a combination of objectives. Forests provide multiple goods and services, certain combinations of which can be prioritized and optimized through management prescriptions. Often, there are trade-offs between the different ecosystem services provided by forests, and careful consideration is needed to balance these different forest benefits, for example between wood production, mitigation of soil erosion and biodiversity conservation8. As societal expectations on the roles of forests evolve, so do the objectives of forest management.
Globally, proportions of forest area designated for production, social services, and multiple use as primary management objective have been stable during the previous 30 years, while proportion allocated for protection of soil and water and biodiversity conservation have consistently increased. Forest area without a designated primary management objective have decreased steadily during this period (Fig. 4).
Although the proportion of forest area allocated for multiple use as the primary objective has not changed considerably, the number of countries that have some forest area managed either as multiple use forest or with multiple objectives (primary and secondary objectives) have increased from 98 countries/territories in 1990 to 120 in 2020.
Countries in the low-income and lower middle-income categories have lower proportions of their forest area designated for production and higher proportions designated for biodiversity conservation compared to the higher income countries. Conversely, high-income and upper middle-income countries have higher proportion designated for production and lower proportion for biodiversity conservation. High-income countries have the largest proportion, 30% of total forest area, allocated to multiple use as the primary management objective among the income categories (Fig. 5).
Another characteristic of lower income countries is the high proportion of forests that have no designated management objectives. In fact, just over half of the total forest area of low-income countries have no management objective. Forests without any designated management objectives are likely to be subjected to unplanned and unsustainable utilization, leading to degradation and loss of economic, ecological and social values, and resulting in deforestation.
There are stark differences in the objectives of forest management among the climatic domains. Boreal forests are characterized by the high proportion, nearly 50% of total forest area, designated primarily for production. At the other end of the climatic range, tropical forests have the lowest proportion allocated for production and the highest proportion designated for biodiversity conservation, which could be a reflection of the relative conservation value of tropical forests. More than 1/3 of tropical forest do not have any designated management objectives (Fig. 6).
Policies and legislations supporting SFM
The presence of supportive policy and legal framework is an important enabling condition for sustainable forest management9. Countries that have policies and legislations that explicitly encourage and support sustainable forest management cover 99% of the global forest area. Approximately half of the countries that have such policies and legislations have them at both national and sub-national levels. The presence of policies and legislations did not differ significantly across climatic domains and national income categories.
Well-formulated and effectively implemented forest polices and legislations plays a key part in advancing sustainable forest management. However, the mere presence of such framework do not necessarily translate to realization of sustainable forest management on the ground. Developing policies that work in practice is difficult9. An extensive review has found that effectiveness of policy instruments in actually improving forest management and conservation is moderate on average10. In recent years, there has been a shift in approach to forest conservation from relying solely on government policies and regulations to an increased emphasis on market-based initiatives11.
Stakeholder platforms
The participation of stakeholders in forest management decision-making can be a powerful vehicle for moving towards sustainability and improving local livelihoods. It is also critical for the legitimacy and effectiveness of national forest programmes12. Effective engagement of stakeholders can balance the different land use interests, minimize conflicts, support new partnerships among communities, government and the private sector, and contribute to sustainable use and conservation of forests13.
In FRA 2020, 143 of the 236 countries and territories reported having in place a stakeholder platform, defined as a recognized procedure that a broad range of stakeholders can use to provide inputs into the development of national forest policy14. These countries account for 95% of the global forest area. The widespread presence of stakeholder platforms reflects the recognition of the importance of engaging various actors across sectors and the role of indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLC) in contributing to sustainable management of forest resources15. While the prevalence of such platforms is encouraging, the actual extent to which these mechanisms are used and their effectiveness are variable.
Permanent forest estate
Permanent forest estate refer to forest area that is designated to be retained as forest and may not be converted to other land use. In principle, these represent forest areas for which a commitment has been made to sustain forest values well into the future6. In 2020, 1.97 billion ha were reported as permanent forest estate, accounting for 48% of the total global forest area. By climatic domain, boreal zone has the largest proportion of the domain forest area in permanent forest estates at 89%, followed by the temperate domain at 59%. On the other hand, only about a quarter of subtropical and tropical forests are designated permanent forest estate. Distribution of permanent forest estates is also highly variable by income. Vast majority, 87%, of permanent forest estate areas are found in high- and upper middle-income countries, while only 2.6% are found in low income countries.
Forest area with long-term forest management plan
The presence of forest management plans indicates the intention to manage forests for long-term purposes4. In this study, forest area with long-term forest management plan refer to forest area that has a long-term (ten years or more) documented management plan, aiming at defined management goals, and which is periodically revised14.
There has been a steady increase in the total forest area covered by forest management plans globally in the past 30 years. The increase has been the most prominent in the tropics where such areas nearly doubled between 1990 and 2020. In the subtropical domain, there was also a substantial increase of 65%. Increases in temperate and boreal forests have been more modest (Fig. 7).
Despite the significant increase in recent decades, the proportion of forest area covered by forest management plans remains modest in the tropics at only 21%. The highest coverage is found in the boreal domain (88%), followed by temperate (65%) and subtropical (51%) domains (Fig. 9).
When viewed by income, forest area covered by forest management plans is highest in high-income countries and declines as income level decreases. Particularly concerning is the very low coverage in the low-income countries where only 12% of the forest have forest management plans (Fig. 9).
Main reasons for the low coverage of forest management plans in lower income tropical countries include inadequate funding and capacity to formulate them, as well as absence of vision for the development and sustainable use of forest resources16. In addition to the low coverage, the quality and implementation of forest management plans were they do exist are also a concern. In many tropical countries, the responsibility of drawing up forest management plans often rest with the concessionaires or logging companies17,18. Under such arrangement, timber harvesting take precedence without adequate attention given to the full range of products and services provided by forests.
Forest area within legally established protected areas
Protected areas have been a leading strategy in biodiversity conservation19,20,21. Currently, 12% of the world’s forests are in legally established protected areas (including IUCN Categories I – IV but excluding Categories V – VI). Forests inside protected areas increased substantially, by 60% globally, between 1990 and 2020. In the boreal, temperate and subtropical domains, forests in protected areas more than doubled. In the tropics, gains were more modest at 44% increase between 1990 and 2020 (Fig. 10). Tropical forests comprise the overwhelming majority (72%) of the global forest area within legally established protected areas.
Proportion of total forest area in the domain located in protected areas is the lowest in boreal zone (5%), increase towards the warmer climate (13% in temperate and subtropical domains, reaching 28% for tropical forests. Viewing the trends by wealth, high-income countries have the lowest percentage of their forest area in legally protected areas, while more than a ¼ of forests in lower middle-income countries are in protected areas (Fig. 11).
The large portion of tropical forests designated as protected areas is indicative of the their importance in protecting globally significant biodiversity as well as the perception that declaring protected status represents the best, and sometimes the only, option for conserving forests of high conservation value in developing tropical countries. Higher income countries, on the other hand, employ a diversity of strategies to maintain forests, including through multiple use, without necessarily designating them as protected areas.
Forest ownership
Forest ownership is not necessarily an indicator of sustainable forest management as different types of forest owners including governments, individuals, private sector companies and local communities could all be responsible stewards of forest resources. There is a perspective that tenure security offered by private ownership has contributed to effective self-regulation of forest management in the temperate zone22. It is further argued that tenure security would encourage investment in sustainable forest management. However, even with secure tenure, it is clear that some form of regulation would still be necessary to ensure responsible forest management as forest owners and managers seeking to maximize profits would likely prioritize short-term revenues particularly in developing countries where political uncertainties add to the inherent risks of biological production.
Globally, 75% of the total forest area was under public ownership in 2015 (the latest year for which data is available), while 22% was privately owned. High-income countries have the highest percentage of forest area under private ownership at 37%, which declines with national income levels to less than 4% in low-income countries. By climatic domain, boreal forest is characterized by its largely public ownership at 91%. Private ownership is more common in subtropical and temperate forests, where 41% and 34% of the domain forest area are privately owned, respectively. In the tropical domain, private ownership is relatively low at 21% and forest with unknown ownership is highest among the climatic domains at 15%. It is likely that lack of clarify on forest ownership contributes to unsustainable use of forest resources and conversion to other land uses in the tropical domain.
Forest certification
Forest certification is an important tool to promote and demonstrate sustainable forest management that is monitored and verified independently. Certification provides assurance that the forest manager is investing in continuous improvement to ensure the use of best practices in managing forests that will result in stable forest production and conservation values4.
International forest certification has grown rapidly over the past two decades, driven by market demand for legal and sustainably produced timber particular in the developed countries. Total certified area increased from 51 million ha in 2000 to 435 million ha in 2020, meaning that just over 10% of the world’s total forest area is now covered by international forest management certification.
Forest certification has been and is still heavily biased towards the boreal and temperate domains. In 2000, boreal and temperate forests accounted for 90% of the total certified forest area, and this share decreased slightly to 84% in 2020. The rate of growth in certified forest area over the past decade was the highest in the tropical domain with a 68% increase, followed by subtropical forests with an increase of 44%. Despite the increase, the extent of certified forest area in subtropical and tropical domains remains modest, comprising only 7.1 and 8.9% of the total certified area (Fig. 12). This is particularly low for tropical forests considering that they make up the largest portion of the global forest area at 45% and the substantial share of tropical hardwood in the global timber trade; tropical hardwood accounted for 24 percent of the global export value of industrial roundwood in 201923.
The growth in forest certification has also been uneven when viewed by income categories. In 2000, 90% of all certified forest areas were in high-income countries. By 2020, this share has decreased to 70%. During the past 10 years, certified forest area in upper middle-income countries expanded rapidly, by more than two-fold. Certified forest area in lower middle-income countries also increased considerably (by 72% during the same period), but the total certified area remain modest at 2.3% of the global total certified area. Certification remained practically non-relevant in low-income countries, with only four countries having any certified forests in 2020 totalling 175,000 ha, which accounted for only 0.04% of the global certified forest area (Fig. 12).
Despite the substantial growth in certified forest area, forest certification has not succeeded in widening its reach in the tropical forests of lower middle-income and low-income countries where such market-based instrument to promote sustainable production while addressing the environmental, social and cultural dimensions of forest management would provide the greatest value.