The results below containing quotations from industry sources (TTCs) and their collaborators, mainly market research companies. While market research companies do not constitute a part of the tobacco industry, their opinions can form the basis for tobacco industry marketing activities. A summary of the themes identified in the analysis of the TIDs can be found in Table 4.
Biology/Personality Stream
(a) Self-image: There is evidence that poor self-image can be a key driver of smoking initiation among youth (Leatherdale et al., 2006; Lorillard Tobacco, 2013; McCool et al., 2014). This is achieved by associating tobacco use with aspirational messages. The TIDs reviewed suggest that the industry used packaging, above and below the line advertising to portray smokers as successful people, such as wealthy business executives and athletes. One of the brands was said to create a “sparkle” that made young people feel better about themselves. While other brands were seen as fashionable or “brands to be seen with.” Below are some quotes from industry sponsored market research in Nigeria extracted from the TIDs.
The typical user is envisaged as trendy, rich, but also young - in other words a highly aspirational user image for these smokers. (Rodnight, 1991)
Rothmans, a younger brand in this market and generally regarded as an easier smoke, tends to have a younger user image, It seems that it is regarded by younger smokers as the brand to be seen with, as the popular, fashionable choice. Rothmans is more fashionable.
(Younger, Upper Income, Premium Price, Lagos)"
(Market Behaviour Limited, 1991a)
[The advertising] It's trying to tell us that, if you take a Benson, it sort of sparkles you, makes you feel yourself.
(Benson young smoker, Lagos - Nigeria)
(Market Behaviour Limited, 1992)
(b) Self-efficacy: This refers to confidence in one's own ability to achieve intended results. The TIDs reviewed suggest that the industry sought to make smoking more attractive to new users by addressing perceptions that smoking behaviour is difficult or problematic. One major challenge, for instance, is the harsh effect of cigarette smoke on the throat of new smokers. The industry thus targeted new smokers in Nigeria with menthol-flavoured cigarettes, such as St. Moritz, to reduce that effect (Euromonitor International, 2016b; Nwhator & Nwhatora, 2012), enhancing the confidence of new smokers in using their product, and increasing the likelihood of continued smoking behaviour. An industry sponsored market research quote on Nigeria states:
The St. Moritz smoker was always spontaneously cited to be young men variously described as 15+, teenagers, youths or beginners. St. Moritz subsequently has something of an image of being a brand for young and inexperienced smokers.
(Market Trends Limited, 1993c)
The most noticeable now is the flavoured cigarettes that we now have. Once you pick a stick of cigarette, you just want to keep having more. It is naturally enticing to adults, talk less of kids. A youth might pick up the banana flavour and want to experiment. The industry is being very creative in coming up with these ideas.
(Interview with Philip Jakpor, tobacco control activist, May 6, 2016)
(c) Sensation-seeking: This relates to the tendency for youth (notably males) to be particularly attracted to behaviours that involve risk taking. There is evidence from diverse settings that this quest for excitement and adventure among youth is a strong explanatory factor for them becoming new smokers (Pollay, 2000; US Surgeon General, 2012). A desire on the part of youth to try new experiences, deemed exciting and risky, can be used by industry to make the initiation of smoking for the first time more attractive. One of the brands introduced into the Nigerian market to create this effect was the John Player brand as seen in the TID quote below from a market research document on the brand.
A high quality international brand for the aspiring young and mature smoker who loves leisure. The brand offers rich, full smooth taste.
(Embagwali, 1992)
(d) Susceptibility to nicotine: A more direct effort to influence the biology/personality stream, described in the TIDs reviewed, involved industry efforts to manipulate the nicotine content in cigarettes to optimise their addictiveness. Existing evidence suggests that youth are physiologically more susceptible to nicotine addiction, and more likely to become long-term tobacco users, once addiction is established (Bell & Keane, 2012; Dada et al., 2016; Palazzo & Richter, 2011; US Surgeon General, 2012). Other studies on nicotine addiction show increased tobacco use, by volume and length of time, among people who initiated smoking at a younger age. Research also found quitting behaviour more difficult, given stronger withdrawal symptoms, when initiation is at an earlier age (Christensen et al., 2014; Schramm-sapyta et al., 2011). An industry witness said the following in a Nigerian court about the industry’s attempt to make cigarettes more addictive.
Addiction was a design criterion of the modern cigarette, achieved through
- manipulation of nicotine levels via technology and blend selection;
- increasing nicotine in the gas phase and/or free nicotine;
- decreasing particle size through combustion chemistry;
- increased inhalability through tobacco processing;
- specification of flavorants, additives, arid smoke chemistry to promote easy inhalability and thus rapid nicotine absorption;
- development of high-porosity paper, low-pressure drop filtration, rapid burning tobacco, and other characteristics to facilitate rapid and repeated product use; and
- marketing, advertising, promotion, and packaging to initiate and sustain addictive use patterns in youth and adults.
(WA, 2008)
Social stream
(a) Lack of parental warmth, support or supervision: A TID quote from an industry sponsored market research observes:
Again linked to the overall lightness and mildness of the smoking offer, menthol cigarettes were commended for having very little or no odour. Consequently they do not leave a lingering smell on the body or on clothes which can later be detected by peers or family members (particularly important to younger smokers who know their parents would disapprove of their smoking and who prefer not to upset them by letting than know)"
(Market Trends Limited, 1993c)
Previous studies have shown that youth are more likely to smoke if they are able to conceal their habit from their parents. A number of factors could contribute to this including, but not limited to, distrust in parents, lack of parental warmth and love, lack of motivation or encouragement from parents. (Egbe, 2013b; Egbe et al., 2014; Francis, et al., 2007) The tobacco industry strengthens the underage smokers’ ability to hide their smoking status from their parents by providing them with menthol or flavoured cigarettes. Nigeria is a major menthol market (Agaku et al., 2014; Euromonitor International, 2016b; Market Behaviour Limited, 1991a; Nwhator & Nwhator, 2012). Other countries have controlled youth smoking by banning menthol cigarettes (Lorillard Tobacco, 2013; Philip Morris International, 2016). The expansion of the menthol market in Nigeria thus supports a sustainable increase in underage smokers. Smaller market operators like the International Tobacco Company Limited Nigeria are taking advantage of the menthol and flavoured cigarettes market to boost their sales due to social unacceptability of smoking (Euromonitor International, 2016b).
(b) Greater influence by peers than parents: The influence of peers, in initiating and strengthening smoking habits, is supported by previous research (Agaku et al., 2012; Bernat et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2013). As observed in an industry sponsored research on Nigeria:
As in other West African markets, either peer group pressure or the example of parents/older relatives prompts new smokers to try cigarettes.
(Market Behaviour Limited, 1991a)
Apart from free distribution of cigarettes, since tobacco companies can no longer advertise openly in Nigeria, they do a lot of promotions. They are not going to come out and do big shows like they used to have before, but now they hold secret smoking parties, where young people are used to invite other young people and all this is done in secret and they go to secret locations and they hold parties and cigarettes are distributed for free. (Interview with tobacco control activist, November 21, 2016)
As observed in the quote above, tobacco companies still secretly organise smoking initiation parties to recruit young smokers. These are usually carried out through peer-to-peer invitations due to the illegal nature of the activities. Other themes related to the social stream included: smoking specific attitudes and behaviours of role models, strong attachment to and strong desire to please peers, beliefs that important others (friends, parents and other role models) encourage smoking, and motivation to comply with other smokers
Cultural/environment
a) Cigarette availability: This refers to ease of access and purchase. A marketing plan for Lucky Strike (LSF) brand in Nigeria, made the following observation:
1995 Sales Target
The 1995 total volume of 27.0 million is too high because our strategy is to launch LSF in only six key urban markets. Sales and merchandising activities will be restricted to outlets patronised by YAUS.
(Nigerian Tobacco Company Plc; Ideh, 1995)
The industry clearly noted outlets patronised by young smokers (“YAUS”) and targeted them with brands with a youthful appeal. Figure 2 below shows a “sweet shop” patronised mostly by school children that also sells tobacco products.
b) Media and advertising depictions of smoking: This refers to hidden and overt messages received by the public when viewing tobacco related ads. In the cultural/environment stream it also refers to the extensive use of marketing and advertising to portray smoking in culturally appealing ways. To circumvent advertising restrictions imposed in Nigeria since 1992, the tobacco industry now uses a lot of point-of-sale advertising. (See Figure 3) Another subtle means of advertising is the increased presence of smoking scenes in Nigerian films, many of which are patronised by youth.
c) Expected costs and benefits of smoking: This looks at the cost-effectiveness of smoking a specific brand. Cheaper brands tend to sell more among youth because of their lower purchasing power. It also refers to the perceived value that young people derive from smoking cigarettes as shown in the TIDs quotes below.
Silk Cut is sometimes also included because it is recognized as a quality cigarette, although considerably cheaper (50 kobo as opposed to N1 per stick). It is generally seen as a milder version of RKS, of particular interest to younger smokers (mildness and low price) …
(Market Behaviour Limited, 1992)
"'Discover Gold'. Gold is something everybody wants to own - that is their marketing strategy." (Rothmans young smoker, Lagos - Nigeria)
(Market Behaviour Limited, 1992)
The research identified other major themes in cultural/environment stream including hedonic values and short term gratification, which refers to the immediate perceived benefits of tobacco use especially among youth, and tolerance of deviance, which indicates a rebellious mindset ready to be different, for example a teenager who smokes to spite his or her non-smoking parents.