Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Table 1
Distribution of Socio Demographic Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Women That Gave Birth In Public Hospitals In Ekiti State, Nigeria
Variables
|
Cases n = 284 (%)
|
Control n = 360
(%)
|
Total n = 644
(%)
|
Age
|
|
|
|
< 20
|
23 (8.1%)
|
72 (20.0%)
|
95 (14.8%)
|
21–34
|
208 (73.2%)
|
210 (58.3%)
|
350 (68.1%)
|
> 35
|
53 (18.7%)
|
78 (21.7%)
|
199 (30.9%)
|
Educational Level
|
|
|
|
No Formal Education
|
17 (6.0%)
|
25 (6.9%)
|
128 (13.4%)
|
Primary School
|
49 (17.3%)
|
63 (17.5%)
|
193 (20.2%)
|
Secondary School
|
68 (23.9%)
|
92 (25.5%)
|
324 (34.0%)
|
Vocational School
|
25 (8.8%)
|
33 (9.2%)
|
50 (5.2%)
|
Tertiary Education
|
125 (44.0%)
|
147 (40.8%)
|
259 (27.1%)
|
Religion
|
|
|
|
Christianity
|
172 (60.6%)
|
211 (58.6%)
|
383 (59.5%)
|
Islam
|
84 (29.6%)
|
105 (29.2%)
|
189 (29.3%)
|
Traditional
|
18 (6.3%)
|
28 (7.8%)
|
46 (7.1%)
|
Others
|
10 (3.5%)
|
16 (4.4%)
|
26 (4.0%)
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
Unmarried
|
36 (12.7%)
|
64 (10.2%)
|
100 (27.8%)
|
Married
|
220 (77.5%)
|
248 (68.9%)
|
468 (72.7%)
|
Divorced / Separated/ Widowed
|
28 (9.9%)
|
48 (13.3%)
|
76 (11.8%)
|
Occupation
|
|
|
|
House wife
|
89 (31.3%)
|
97 (27.0%)
|
186 (28.9%)
|
Employed/Self-Employed
|
142 (50.0%)
|
195 (54.2%)
|
337 (52.3%)
|
Unemployed/Student
|
53 (18.7%)
|
68 (18.9%)
|
121 (18.9%)
|
Monthly Income In Naira (N)
|
|
|
|
20,000 and below
|
51 (18.9%)
|
72 (18.8%)
|
123 (19.1%)
|
21,000–40,000
|
120 (42.3%)
|
148 (38.3%)
|
268 (41.6%)
|
41,000–60,000
|
76 (26.8%)
|
98 (7.0%)
|
174 (27.0%)
|
61,000 and above
|
37 (13.0%)
|
42 (35.9%)
|
79 (12.3%)
|
Place of Residence
|
|
|
|
Urban
|
155 (54.6%)
|
200 (55.6%)
|
355 (55.1%)
|
Rural
|
129 (45.4%)
|
160 (44.4%)
|
289 (44.8%)
|
Source: Fieldwork, 2021
In this research, an aggregate of 284 women, who had experienced an unfavourable birth upshot (cases) and 360 women' who experienced normal delivery result (controls) were incorporated, which made the response to be 100 percent. The mean (±SD) of mothers’ ages was 26.45 ± 6.22 years' going from 15 to 49 years. Findings revealed that; 129 (45.4%) of cases and 160(44.4%) controls were dwelling in the rural communities. An examination on the educational status of respondents, 17(6.0%) cases and 25(6.9%) of controls had no formal education while the majority, 123(44.0%) cases and 147(40.8%) of controls were graduates; this result is not unconnected to the love of education by the indigenes of Ekiti State. As to marital status, 220(77.5) cases and 248(68.9%) of controls of the women were married. 142 (50.0%) of cases and 195(54.2%) of controls were either employed or self-employed while 89(31.3%) of cases and 97(27.0%) of controls were full housewives; this is an indication that women in the study setting believe in hard-work rather than staying at home and depend on their husbands to feed.
Mothers’ Pregnancy and Obstetric Characteristics
Table 2 Pregnancy and obstetric characteristics of mothers among cases and controls who gave birth in public hospitals of Ekiti State, Nigeria (n = 644)
Variables
|
Cases n = 284 (%)
|
Control n = 360 (%)
|
Total n = 644
(%)
|
There is an Antenatal Care Follow Up
|
No
|
105 (37.0%)
|
154 (42.8%)
|
259 (40.2%)
|
Yes
|
179 (63.0%)
|
206 (57.2%)
|
385 (59.8%)
|
Intention of the Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
Intended
|
200 (70.4%)
|
255 (70.8%)
|
455 (70.7%)
|
Unintended
|
84 (29.6%)
|
105 (29.2%)
|
189 (29.3%)
|
How Many Antenatal Care Visit
|
1–3 times
|
82 (28.9%)
|
118 (32.8%)
|
200 (31.1%)
|
4 Times and Above
|
202 (71.1%)
|
242 (67.2%)
|
444 (68.9%)
|
Parity
|
Primipara
|
96 (33.8%)
|
116 (32.2%)
|
212 (32.9%)
|
Multipara
|
188 (66.2%)
|
244 (67.8%)
|
432 (67.1%)
|
Number of Pregnancy Ever Had (Gravida)
|
1
|
72 (25.4%)
|
105 (29.2%)
|
177 (27.5%)
|
2
|
114 (40.1%)
|
135 (37.5%)
|
249 (38.7%)
|
≥3
|
98 (34.5%)
|
120 (33.3%)
|
218 (33.8%)
|
Source: Fieldwork, 2021
In the table above, the median of parity for the cases and controls ranged 2 ± 2 from 1 to 10 live births. In the main, more than 6 of 10 of the respondents, 179(63.0%) cases and 206(57.2%) controls had had antenatal care follow up in any event once during their pregnancy period. Also, about 2 out of 10 of the pregnancies 84(29.6%) cases and 1056(29.2%) controls were unintended. More than one thirds, 114(40.1%) cases and 135(37.5%) of controls had three (3) or more number of pregnancies.
Forms of Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy Experienced
Table 3 Forms of intimate partner violence during pregnancy among women who gave birth in public hospitals of Ekiti State, Nigeria
Variables
|
Category
|
Cases n = 284 (%)
|
Control n = 360 (%)
|
Total n = 644(%)
|
Ever Experienced All Forms of Violence
|
Yes
|
204 (71.8%)
|
225 (62.5%)
|
429 (66.6%)
|
No
|
80 (28.2%)
|
135 (37.5%)
|
215 (33.4%)
|
Physical Abuse
|
You were slapped
|
Yes
|
179 (63.0%)
|
212 (58.9%)
|
391 (60.7%)
|
No
|
105 (37.0%)
|
148 (41.1%)
|
253 (39.3%)
|
Your Hair was Pulled/Pushed/Shoved
|
Yes
|
200 (70.4%)
|
255 (70.8%)
|
455 (70.7%)
|
No
|
84 (29.6%)
|
105 (29.2%)
|
189 (29.3%)
|
You were beaten /Kicked or Dragged on the Floor
|
Yes
|
105 (37.0%)
|
154 (42.8%)
|
259 (40.2%)
|
No
|
179 (63.0%)
|
206 (57.2%)
|
385 (59.8%)
|
You were Hit with what could hurt you
|
Yes
|
155 (54.6%)
|
200 (55.6%)
|
355 (55.1%)
|
No
|
129 (45.4%)
|
160 (44.4%)
|
289 (44.8%)
|
You were threatened or weapon was used against you
|
Yes
|
201 (70.8%)
|
304 (84.4%)
|
505 (78.4%)
|
No
|
83 (29.2%)
|
56 (15.6%)
|
139 (21.6%)
|
Psychological Abuse/Violence
|
You were insulted or made to strongly feel so bad about yourself.
|
Yes
|
199 (70.1%)
|
250 (69.4%)
|
449 (69.7%)
|
No
|
85 (29.9%)
|
110 (30.6%)
|
194 (30.1%)
|
You were humiliated or belittled in the presence of others
|
Yes
|
166 (58.5%)
|
206 (57.2%)
|
259 (40.2%)
|
No
|
118 (41.5%)
|
154 (42.8%)
|
385 (59.8%)
|
Your spouse intimidated or scared you purposely
|
Yes
|
232 (81.7%)
|
270 (75.0%)
|
502 (78.0%)
|
No
|
52 (18.7%)
|
90 (25.0%)
|
142 (22.0%)
|
Sexual Abuse/Violence
|
You have been physically forced by your spouse to have sexual intercourse
|
Yes
|
190 (67.0%)
|
235 (65.3%)
|
425 (66.0%)
|
No
|
94 (29.6%)
|
125 (34.7%)
|
219 (34.0%)
|
You have sexual intercourse under fear, when you were interested to avoid your spouse anger and abuse.
|
Yes
|
194 (68.3%)
|
255 (29.2%)
|
449 (69.7%)
|
No
|
90 (31.7%)
|
105 (41.1%)
|
195 (30.3%)
|
Have you ever been forced to engage in sexual intercourse that resulted in humiliation?
|
Yes
|
200 (70.4%)
|
255 (70.8%)
|
455 (70.7%)
|
No
|
84 (29.6%)
|
105 (29.2%)
|
189 (29.3%)
|
Source: Fieldwork, 2021
The study, majority, 204 (71.8%) cases and 6 over 10 (62.5%) of controls detailed encountering some type of IPV while pregnant, 179(63.0%) cases and 212 (58.9%) of controls announced encountering some demonstration of physical abuse such as being slapped during pregnancy. The total number of respondents that indicated to be violently abused through being hair pulled or pushed were 200 (70.4%) of cases 255 (70.8%) while 155 0(54.6%) cases and 200 (55.6%) of controls revealed being hit with what could hurt them by their intimate partners as the most well-known form of physical violence and instrument of abuse during pregnancy.
In an examination on the psychological violence experienced by pregnant women in the study setting, 7 out of 10, (70.1%) of the cases and (69.4%) of the controls showcased that they had experienced being insulted; some, 166 (58.5%) cases and 206 (57.2%) controls indicated that they were humiliated or belittled in the presence of others by their husbands as a form of psychological violence while those, who were intimidated or scared purposely 232 (81.7%) cases and 270 (75.0%) controls.
On sexual violence against women during pregnancy, 190 (67.0%) of the cases revealed that they had been physically forced by your spouse to have sexual intercourse, when they did not have intention to do it. On being force to engage in sexual intercourse that led to humiliation, 200 (70.4%) cases and 255 (70.8%) control were of the revelation that they had been violently abused sexually, which had led to humiliation. This was the most widely recognized sexual violence followed by having sexual intercourse under fear, even when they were uninterested in order to avoid their spouse’s anger, violence and abuse 194 (68.3%) cases and 255(29.2%) controls.
Table 4 Partner’s controlling practice among cases and controls who gave birth in public hospitals of Ekiti State, Nigeria
Variables
|
Category
|
Cases n = 284 (%)
|
Control n = 360
(%)
|
Total n = 644
(%)
|
Were you mandated by your husband to ask his permission, if you wanted to attend Antenatal care?
|
Yes
|
211 (74.3)
|
250 (69.4%)
|
461 (70.7%)
|
No
|
73 (25.7%)
|
110 (30.6%)
|
183 (28.4%)
|
Did your husband restrict you to have contact with your family of orientation?
|
Yes
|
178 (62.7%)
|
157 (43.6%)
|
259 (40.8%)
|
No
|
106 (37.3%)
|
203 (56.4%)
|
385 (59.2%)
|
Did your husband monitor all your movement every time?
|
Yes
|
147 (51.8%)
|
203 (56.4%)
|
350 (54.3%)
|
No
|
137 (48.2%)
|
157 (43.6%)
|
294 (45.7%)
|
Has your husband been angry seeing you having discussion with another man?
|
Yes
|
104 (36.6%)
|
144 (40.0%)
|
259 (38.5%)
|
No
|
180 (63.4%)
|
216 (60.0%)
|
396 (61.5%)
|
Has your husband accused your of infidelity or marital unfaithfulness?
|
Yes
|
154 (54.6%)
|
200 (55.6%)
|
355 (55.1%)
|
No
|
129 (45.4%)
|
160 (44.4%)
|
289 (44.9%)
|
Source: Fieldwork, 2021
In the table 4, it was found out that 211(74.3%) cases and 250(69.4%) of controls reported that the respondents’ partner usually exercised a high level of controlling practice by mandating them to ask their permission, if they wanted to attend Antenatal care during pregnancy. This was the commonest form of partner’s controlling practice reported. Pregnant women’s restriction of having contact with their family of orientation, which is their family of birth 178 (62.7%) was discovered as one of the forms of partner’s controlling practices.
In addendum to the findings, 147 (51.8%) cases and 203 (56.4%) revealed that husbands always monitor all movements of their pregnant women, which is part of the controlling practices revealed during the course of the study. 154 (54.6%) cases and 200 (55.6%) of controls indicated that husbands accused their pregnant wives of infidelity or marital unfaithfulness.
Associations Between Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Against Pregnant Women and Unfavourable Birth Upshot
Table 5: Logistic Regression Analysis Result for Significant Variables (P ≤ 0.05) In Bivariate Analysis in Public Hospitals of Ekiti State, Nigeria
Variables
|
Category
|
Cases n = 284 (%)
|
Control n = 360 (%)
|
COR (95% CI)
|
AOR (95% CI)
|
Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence
|
Yes
|
204 (71.8%)
|
225 (62.5%)
|
1
|
1
|
No
|
80 (28.2%)
|
135 (37.5%)
|
6.152 (4.416, 7.959) *
|
2.919 (1.398,6.587) *
|
Physical violence
|
Yes
|
179 (63.0%)
|
212 (58.9%)
|
1
|
1
|
No
|
105 (37.0%)
|
148 (41.1%)
|
7.522 (6.717, 10. 158) *
|
4.563 (2.685, 8.684) *
|
Psychological violence
|
Yes
|
199 (70.1%)
|
250 (69.4%)
|
1
|
1
|
No
|
85 (29.9%)
|
110 (30.6%)
|
4.214 (2.623, 4.545) *
|
1.453 (0.732, 2.565)
|
Sexual violence
|
Yes
|
190 (67.0%)
|
235 (65.3%)
|
1
|
1
|
No
|
94 (29.6%)
|
125 (34.7%)
|
4.364 (2.475,5.042) *
|
0.983 (0.499, 1.323)
|
Controlling Practices / Behaviours
|
Yes
|
178 (62.7%)
|
157 (43.6%)
|
1
|
1
|
No
|
106 (37.3%)
|
203 (56.4%)
|
4.0724 (2.264, 5.335) *
|
0.675(0.510, 2.270)
|
Source: Fieldwork, 2021 *P value <0.05 in bivariate analysis
It can be deduced from the analysis in the table above, the entirety of the 5 factors revealed a significant association with the unfavourable birth upshot at a 5% degree of significance. Every one of them was incorporated for additional investigation. Intimate partner violence, physical violence, psychological violence, sexual violence and controlling practices or behaviours were infused in the multivariate logistic regression at 0.05 degree of significance. A portion of the variables, which showcased significant association with unfavourable birth results in the bivariate research, could not persevere fundamentally in the multivariate analyses. Form the multivariate analysis, just two of the variables showed a degree of significance on the birth upshot at a 5% degree of significance
Appropriately, it was discovered that the danger of PTB or LBW was on the increase, when the pregnant women were endangered to more than one form of intimate partner violence. The chances of unfavourable birth upshot among those pregnant women in the study setting were exposed to more than one form of intimate partner violence during pregnancy were 2.92 times greater than those pregnant women, who do not encounter more than one form of violence in pregnancy (AOR = 2.919; 95% CI (1.398, 6.587)).
Essentially, an association was additionally examined for sub-categories of intimate partner violence such as physical, sexual and psychological factors. A physical violence against pregnant women was reliably connected with a significant increase in the unfavourable birth upshots. It was seen that pregnant women, who were exposed to physical violence while pregnancy were 4.563 occasions at higher danger of having the unfavourable birth upshot when contrasted with the individuals who had not (AOR = 4.563; 95% CI (2.685, 8.684)). Also, women, who were exposed to physical violence during pregnancy, were multiple times bound to experience low birth weight (AOR = 4.563; CI 95% (2.685, 8.684)) and preterm birth (AOR = 6.1; CI 95%: (4.01, 7.154)). (AOR = 4.563; 95% CI (2.685, 8.684. Conclusively, this study established that; there is connection between unfavourable birth upshots and physical, sexual, psychological violence and spouse controlling practices and behaviours of husbands during pregnancy in the study setting.