Procedure
Data were collected via a telephone survey from a sample of community-based U.S. military veterans recruited to assess the health effects of military service.15 All participants were outpatients of Geisinger Clinic, the largest multi-hospital system in central and northeastern Pennsylvania (see: www.geisinger.org), serving more than 3 million residents. Starting in 2007, Geisinger Clinic began to keep records on veteran status and patients were asked to complete a military history questionnaire. Participants were randomly selected using Geisinger’s Electronic Health Record (EHR) system. We excluded participants who were institutionalized or incapable of completing a 65-minute interview due to physical, language, or cognitive impairment. Inclusion criteria included being able to complete the survey in English, being between 18 and 75 years old, and having at least one warzone deployment. After obtaining informed consent, trained interviewers administered a structured diagnostic interview which took place between February 2016 and February 2017. The final sample size was 1,730, and the survey cooperation rate was estimated to be approximately 55%.17 The Institutional Review Boards of Geisinger and the Department of Defense reviewed and approved the study protocols.
Dependent Variables
The study focused on three outcome variables: PTSD, depression, and suicide ideation. To assess lifetime and past year PTSD, we used a diagnostic instrument and the PTSD Checklist,18 based on the Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5). To receive a diagnosis of PTSD, veterans had to meet the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria A through G: trauma exposure (criterion A), intrusive symptoms (criterion B), persistent avoidance (criterion C), negative alterations in cognitions/mood (criterion D), increased arousal (criterion E), and reported impairment/distress related to these symptoms (criterion G). Almost 80% of the veterans in the current study reported that the most significant lifetime stressor they experienced was warzone or combat exposure. Lifetime and past year depression were measured using a 10-item (coded no/yes) version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID) Major Depressive Disorder used in previous studies.15 Consistent with DSM-IV, respondents met criteria for depression (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.87), if they had 5 or more depression symptoms for at least 2-weeks.19, 20 We also used one item from the DSM-IV depression scale to measure Lifetime Suicide Ideation to focus more specifically on this important health outcome. Specifically, the item asked if respondents had ever had thoughts for two weeks or longer about how they would be better off dead or “of hurting yourself in some way” (no vs. yes).
Independent Variables
Our survey included demographic, military experiences, recent stressors, social connections, and psychological resource independent variables known to affect mental health. Demographic variables were sex, age, race, marital status, and education, which were coded such that female, older (65+), White, married or living together as married, and college graduate were coded as the indicator variable. Our military experience variables included deployment era (Iraq/Afghanistan vs. other eras), multiple combat zone tours (coded two or more vs. one) and deployed as National Guard/Reserve (no vs. yes). We measured combat exposure based on eight items from the Combat Experiences Scale.16, 21−22 A number of military health studies used versions of this scale since the Vietnam war period.23 The 8 items (rated 1 to 4) asked about encountering dead bodies, being wounded by hostile fire, killing enemy combatants, and other combat related events (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.84). We coded the sample into high combat exposure (≥ 75th percentile) versus lower exposure. Finally, unit support/morale was the mean of six items from the Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory that inquired about a sense of camaraderie in the unit, trust of other unit members, commanding officers being interested in how they felt, feeling like efforts counted in the military, during deployment, etc.24, 25 (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78). We coded respondents into those who felt a high sense of support and unit morale versus those who did not using the scale’s 25th percentile. These measures were updated to reflect current conflicts.15
The analysis also included three measures of stress based on previous work.14, 16 Stressful events in the past year was the sum of 8 experiences (e.g., spouse/mate die, serious injury, problems at work, etc.), which has been used in past research.16 Lifetime trauma was the sum of 12 experiences (e.g., natural disaster; being attacked with gun, knife, weapon; situation where you were seriously injured or suffered physical damage; forced sexual contact, etc.) that could have happened to the respondent in their lifetime. Finally, the Adverse Childhood Experiences measure was the sum of 9 events (e.g., parent swear or indult you; parent push, grab, slap, or push you) that could have happened to the participant before they were 18.26 This measure of childhood abuse and neglect has been used in many studies, showing good validity and reliability.26, 27 For all three of these measures, we divided the sample into low vs high exposure (high = 2 + events).
Lastly, the analyses included several psychological, social, and physical health factors that could help explain sex differences in well-being. Psychological resilience was assessed by the 5-item version of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale,28 with respondents who fell below the 25th percentile defined as having low resilience.15 The Cronbach’s Alpha for this scale was 0.99.The social support scale (e.g., someone available to help you if you were confined to bed) used in this study was based on four questions (Cronbach's alpha = 0.84) that inquired about emotional, informational, and instrumental support, coded 1–4 (“none of the time” to “all the time”).29 This scale has been used in previous trauma studies and is considered a reliable and valid measure of current social support.15,30−32 Low social support was defined as cases falling at or below the 25th percentile.30 Self-rated physical health was assessed using one item (fair/poor vs. good to excellent). Concussion history was assessed based on reported concussions experienced during military service (no/yes). The survey inquired about past year heavy drinking, which we operationalized as 40 or more drinks per month (coded 1), and self-esteem, using 5-items from Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem scale (Cronbach’s Alpha = .87), which we divided into low vs. high categories, using the 75th percentile as the cutpoint. These measures are used in other papers and show good validity.15−16
Finally, we assessed several variables related to health services use. VA service use was assessed using single item questions inquiring about current and lifetime use of VA healthcare services. We also used a single item to ask about current VA disability status. In addition, the survey asked about the use of psychological services and psychotropic medications in the past year. For the use of medications, the survey inquired about anti-depressants, tranquilizers, sleeping pills or other medicines for problems with emotions, nerves, concentrating, sleeping or coping with stress over the past 12 months. All were used in previous studies.15, 16
Analytic Strategy
We present descriptive statistics and bivariate differences between male and female veterans (Table 1). Given the low number of females in our sample, we conducted preliminary analyses focused on lifetime disorders and retained variables that predicted these outcomes using multivariate logistic regression (Table 2). Following this, we used propensity score matching at 1:1, 1:3, and 1:5 female to male and compare these results to conventional multivariate logistic regression.33
Table 1
Demographic, Deployment, and Well-Being Measures for Total Sample and by Sex (N = 1727–1730)
| (N) | % Total | Sex | | |
Study Variables | %Male | %Female | χ2 | p-value |
Age: 18–64 | (751) | 43.5 | 40.8 | 95.3 | 97.75 | < 0.001 |
White Race | (1655) | 95.7 | 95.9 | 90.6 | 5.56 | 0.018 |
Married | (1340) | 77.5 | 78.8 | 50.6 | 36.96 | < 0.001 |
College Graduate or Higher | (429) | 24.8 | 23.6 | 47.1 | 23.56 | < 0.001 |
Iraq/Afghanistan Veteran | (396) | 22.9 | 21.3 | 54.1 | 49.39 | < 0.001 |
Multiple Tours | (686) | 39.7 | 40.3 | 29.4 | 3.97 | 0.046 |
Deployed NG/Reserve | (665) | 38.4 | 37.0 | 65.9 | 28.45 | < 0.001 |
High Childhood Abuse/Neglect | (288) | 16.6 | 16.5 | 20.0 | 0.72 | 0.395 |
High Combat Exposure | (408) | 23.6 | 24.7 | 2.4 | 22.36 | < 0.001 |
Low Unit Support | (364) | 21.0 | 20.5 | 31.8 | 6.19 | 0.013 |
High Stressful Events Past Yr. | (375) | 21.7 | 21.3 | 29.4 | 3.15 | 0.080 |
High Lifetime Trauma | (357) | 20.6 | 20.6 | 21.2 | 0.90 | 0.891 |
Low Psych Resilience | (439) | 25.4 | 24.3 | 45.9 | 19.85 | < 0.001 |
Low Current Social Support | (314) | 18.2 | 17.9 | 23.5 | 1.74 | 0.187 |
Fair/Poor Current Health | (633) | 36.7 | 37.2 | 26.2 | 4.16 | 0.041 |
Concussion in Service | (491) | 28.4 | 29.1 | 14.1 | 8.95 | 0.003 |
Heavy Drinking Past 30 Days | (208) | 12.0 | 12.5 | 2.4 | 7.90 | 0.005 |
Low Self-Esteem | (400) | 23.1 | 22.7 | 30.6 | 2.80 | 0.094 |
PTSD Past Year | (132) | 7.6 | 7.3 | 14.1 | 5.34 | 0.021 |
PTSD Lifetime | (216) | 12.5 | 11.6 | 29.4 | 23.44 | < 0.001 |
Current Depression Disorder | (143) | 8.3 | 7.8 | 17.6 | 10.38 | 0.001 |
Lifetime Depression Disorder | (381) | 22.0 | 20.8 | 45.9 | 29.63 | < 0.001 |
Recent Suicidal Thoughts | (94) | 5.2 | 5.2 | 9.4 | 2.75 | 0.1.33 |
Ever Suicidal Thoughts | (196) | 11.3 | 10.5 | 27.1 | 22.02 | < 0.001 |
Currently Using VA Service | (864) | 49.9 | 50.3 | 43.5 | 1.47 | 0.225 |
Current VA Disability | (629) | 36.4 | 37.0 | 24.7 | 5.25 | 0.022 |
Use Psych Services Past Yr. | (406) | 23.5 | 22.4 | 43.5 | 20.03 | < 0.001 |
Use Psychotropics Past Yr. | (384) | 22.2 | 21.4 | 37.6 | 12.36 | < 0.001 |
N (%) | | | 1645(95.1) | 85(4.9) | | |
Table 2
Odds Ratios and 95% Confidence Intervals for Mental Health Outcomes Regressed on Demographic, Deployment, Drinking, and Psychological Resource Variables (N = 1728). Logistic Regression: OR-Odds Ratio; CI-Confidence Interval
Significance levels: * p < .05; * p < .01; *** p < .001
Independent Variables | Lifetime PTSD OR (95% CI) | Lifetime Depression OR (95% CI) | Ever Suicidal Thoughts OR (95% CI) |
Sex (Female) | 5.16 (2.61–10.20)*** | 3.09 (1.74–5.49)*** | 2.62 (1.40–4.93)*** |
Age (65+) | 0.71 (0.48–1.03) | 0.50 (0.38–0.67)*** | 0.72 (0.51–1.03) |
College Graduate or Higher | 0.83 (0.54–1.26) | 0.81 (0.58–1.13) | 1.00 (0.68–1.49) |
Married | 1.41 (0.92–2.14) | 1.05 (0.75–1.45) | 1.21 (0.81–1.81) |
High Child, Abuse/Neglect | 1.64 (1.10–2.43)* | 2.13 (1.54–2.95)*** | 2.25 (1.56–3.24)*** |
High Stress past Yr. | 3.29 (2.38–4.77)*** | 2.27 (1.67)*** | 1.23 (0.84–1.79) |
High Lifetime Trauma | 2.38 (1.64–3.45)*** | 1.64 (1.20–2.25)** | 1.20 (0.82–1.76) |
High Combat Exposure | 3.00 (2.03–4.44)*** | 1.86 (1.34–2.57)*** | 1.20 (0.81–1.79) |
Concussion in Service | 2.27 (1.56–3.31)*** | 1.50 (1.10–2.04)** | 1.13 (0.77–1.64) |
Heavy Drinking | 1.66 (1.01–2.72)* | 1.09 (0.71–1.64) | 1.17 (0.72–1.91) |
Low Self-Esteem | 3.06 (2.09–4.49)*** | 3.41 (2.51–4.63)*** | 4.27 (2.95–6.18)*** |
Low Resilience | 2.26 (1.54–3.31)*** | 2.33 (1.72–3.15)*** | 1.95 (1.35–2.81)*** |
Low Current Social Support | 1.69 (1.12–2.54)* | 1.62 (1.16–2.27)** | 1.34 (0.91–1.98) |
Constant | 0.011*** | 0.076*** | 0.034*** |
Propensity score matching
For propensity score matching we first used the confounding covariates listed in Table 2, including age, college graduate, married status, anti-social disorder, high combat exposure, serving on multiple tours, ever used mental health services, low psychological resilience, high neglect/abuse history, high current life stress, high lifetime trauma, history of concussion, low self-esteem, and low social support. In addition to these variables, we also added history of ADHD (yes vs. no), Iraq/Afghanistan service, low unit support during deployment, military rank (officer vs. enlisted), white race, assessment of stable emotions, based on the 5-factor personality scale34, and current reported VA service use to estimate the propensity score for the variable, female sex. Then our matching procedure was executed using 1:1 nearest neighbor matching where a single female participant was matched to a single male participant who had the most similar estimated propensity score. In addition, as the sample sizes of the female and male participants vary greatly, we performed the one to many matchings where a single female participant was matched to more than one male participant (such as 1: 3 and 1: 5 matching).33 Multivariate logistic regression results were then conducted for the 1: 1 nearest neighbor matching, 1: 3 and 1: 5 matching to evaluate the sex differences in predicting lifetime PTSD, lifetime depression, and suicidal thoughts (Table 3). The matching procedures using propensity scores were conducted in RStudio Version 1.2.1335, the “MatchIt” package. 35, 36
Table 3
Multivariate logistic regression results using propensity score matching for lifetime PTSD, Depression, and Suicide Ideation
Significance levels: *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05.
Dependent Variable | OR (0.95 CI) | Pr(>|z|) |
Matching: PTSD 1 to 5female vs. male 1 to 3female vs. male 1 to 1female vs. male | 4.67(2.239.79) 4.32(1.989.39) 3.38(1.321.32) | < 0.00001*** 0.000228*** 0.011125* |
Matching: Major Depression 1 to 5female vs. male 1 to 3female vs. male 1 to 1female vs. male | 2.88(1.585.27) 2.50(1.344.65) 2.62(1.185.84) | 0.000592*** 0.003813** 0.0181* |
Matching: Suicide Ideation 1 to 5female vs. male 1 to 3female vs. male 1 to 1female vs. male | 2.46(1.274.75) 2.57(1.295.13) 2.53(1.085.92) | 0.00761** 0.00737** 0.03195* |