Ethnomedicine in Daur
Diversity of Daur medicinal plants
In total, 30 medicinal plants were identified, from 19 families (Table 1). Among them, the Compositae was the dominant plant family used (4 species), followed by the Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae (3 species each), and the Gramineae, Betulaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (2 species each). There were 13 other commonly used families including Tricholomataceae, Auriculariales, Typhaceae, Salicaceae, Moraceae, Polygonaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Araliaceae, Umbelliferae, Ericaceae, Labiatae, Solanaceae, and Caprifoliaceae (one species each).
While it has been observed that, many medicinal plants are cultivated, in our study, most plant medicines were collected from the natural environment. Herbs (21 species, 70.0%) were the most commonly used plant type, followed by shrubs (4 species, 13.3%), trees (3 species, 10.0%), and fungi (2 species, 6.7%) (Fig. 3a).
Depending on the particular medicinal plant, different parts are used in the treatment of various diseases. According to the interviews with informants, the most commonly used parts are the seeds (8); followed by the roots and fruits (6, each); whole plant (5); branches (3); bark, rhizomes, flowers, and fruiting bodies (2, each), and root nodules and leaves (1, each) (Fig. 3b). TDM differs from TCM in which the most used plant parts are the roots. These differences may be influenced by factors involving the ease of collection and application.
Diversity of Daur medicinal animals
In the present study, 20 animal species from 11 families were documented from the study site (Table 2). The most widely used family was Cervidae (4 species), followed by Phasianidae, Canidae, and Bovidae (3 species each). Other families that were commonly used were Ranidae, Trionychidae, Picidae, Corvidae, Erinaceidae, Mustelidae, and Suidae (one species, each).
Mammals were the dominant animal group, accounting for 14 species (66.6%), followed by birds (5, 23.8%), and amphibians and reptiles (1, 4.8%) (Fig. 3c). Animal-based drugs mainly came from organs (12), such as the kidney, liver, gallbladder, heart, gizzard, uterus, and viscera, and involved numerous applications. Animal-based drugs were also prepared from tissues (11), including meat, hamstrings, grease, hair, and blood; from bones and the whole body (3 each); secretions and antlers (2 each); and carapaces (1) (Fig. 3d).
Traditional applications of Daur ethnomedicine
Diversity of route, preparation, dosage, and usage of ethnomedicines
We collected information on the Daur ethnomedicine administration route, preparation, dosage, and usage. According to the interviews with the informants, the most popular route was oral (39, 66.1%), followed by external administration only (11, 18.6%), and both oral and external administration (9, 15.2%) (Fig. 4).
According to the present study, plant and animal medicines were prepared via decoction (21), grinding (11), boiling (10), extraction (8), and burning (7) (Table 4). Among them, decoction, the usual preparation technique in Chinese medicine, was the method used most often (36.9%). Other preparation methods reflected the unique characteristics of TDM. In particular, various medicinal and food ingredients are boiled together and eaten as a meal, which is typical of the Daur practice of combining medicinal and edible materials in their treatments.
Most medicines are consumed as a drink (37), which involves decoction, extraction (i.e., solutions and oils). Some are taken by other methods, for example, they may be eaten (16), made into pills and powder (7), used as an ointment/wash (6), applied as a wrap/dressing (5), placed in the nose, eyes, or mouth (4), or used as a fumigant (2) (Table 5). Dosages were estimated for most medicines and were dependent on the age of the patient, severity of the illness, diagnosis, and the experience of the healers.
The ethnic groups adjacent to the Daur group include the Olunchun and Ewenki nationalities Bi [26] et al. compared the ethnic medicine approach of the “three minor nationalities” in Inner Mongolia. It appears that Artemisia argyi is used as a medicine by all three nationalities. While the Daur people use it to treat urticaria and rheumatic pain, the Ewenki used it for chronic hepatitis, and the Olunchun use it to treat uterine bleeding and postpartum haemorrhage. The different therapeutic uses of the same medicinal materials in different ethnic groups reflect differences in national characteristics, indicating that they are closely related to the history, culture, and life of each nationality. Table 6 compares TDM with TCM and TMM. The known efficacy of the Chinese and Mongolian medicines can help predict the effectiveness of the TDMs and identify those that have the potential for the development of new drugs in the future.
Diseases treated by diverse medicinal resources
Tables 2 and 3 present TDM used to treat 76 human diseases or ailments classified under 13 disease categories, based on the ICD-11. A disease-classification-disease-medicine network of TDM was constructed and visualised with Cytoscape software using the disease classifications and medicinal species targeted (Fig. 5). The availability of the network model structure may improve our understanding of the relationship between plant medicines, animal medicines, diseases, and disease classification.
According to statistical information, the classification of ‘symptoms, signs or clinical findings, not elsewhere classified’ was primary, and included seven diseases and ailments, namely, constipation, cough, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, loss of appetite, abnormal sputum, and extravasation of blood. As shown in the constructed network, there were obvious and expressed correlations with 29 medicinal species, such as the plant medicines of R. simsii, P. frutescens, A. integrifolia and the animal medicines of S. scrofa domestica, C. nippon, and C. capreolus. Other classifications included ‘certain infectious or parasitic diseases’ (18 species), ‘injury, poisoning or certain other consequences of external causes’ (11 species), and other disease classifications. The classification of diseases and ailments clearly indicates a link between TDM and modern medicine; however, traditional medicine still has its inherent characteristics. Thousands of years ago, the Daur people learned to use natural materials (animals, plants, and minerals) from their surroundings in the struggle against various diseases. Experience has been passed from generation to generation, gradually forming a body of medical knowledge with local ethnic characteristics, and folk medicines that really have curative effects are still circulating in Daur. These include “Kumule” the Chinese name of which translates as “Liu Ye Hao”, which is derived from A. integrifolia. It has the effect of heat-clearing and detoxifying and is used to treat hyperlipidaemia, excessive drinking, and stomach bleeding [27]. Among the diseases, common day-to-day ailments (cough, constipation, diarrhea, and trauma) and endemic diseases (rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis) were treated with numerous TDM therapies at Hulunbuir.
The Ewenki and Daur people both live in Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia. Traditional medicines of the two groups focus on different diseases. Ewenki medicine is mainly used for respiratory system diseases, digestive system diseases, skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases, while the Daur’s drugs are used for certain infectious diseases and parasitic infestations, digestive diseases, injuries, poisoning, trauma, and musculoskeletal and connective tissue diseases.
Quantitative assessment of ethnobotanical data
Informant consensus factor
ICF is used to identify plants of particular intercultural relevance. With the ICF, we evaluated how homogenous the information was. Thirteen disease categories were identified. The ICF was calculated for each disease category, and the range was from 0.29 to 1.00 (Table 7). The highest ICF (1.00) was reported for the neoplasms, visual system diseases, childbirth or puerperium; all of which involved one species and one use. The next group included injury, poisoning or certain other medical problems arising from external causes (0.92) with two species and 13 use reports. The third group comprised symptoms, signs or clinical findings, not elsewhere classified (0.82) with 18 species and 95 use reports. The highest ICF for the neoplasms, visual system diseases, childbirth, puerperium, injury, poisoning or certain other medical problems arising from external causes can be probably related to the low number of cases. Trauma and poisoning are mainly treated by taking agaric and Artemisia integrifolia medicines.
Use value
The most used medicines were C. elaphus and C. nippon with UVs of 2.70 followed by C. capreolus, G. gallus, C. lupus familiaris, and B. platyphylla with UVs of 1.82, 1.81, 1.33, and 1.07, respectively. Many parts of these species are used as medicine and they are readily available or are typical species of the area. Specifically, A. integrifolia, with an UV of 1.00, is a well-known local species that is used for both food and medicine. In the published literature, A. integrifolia has reportedly been used to treat various diseases including hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, diabetes, and hepatitis, besides its use in TDM [28]. Species that are used to treat three diseases and more (39%) were dominant, followed by species used to treat single diseases (37%), and plants or animals used to treat two diseases (24%). With respect to animal parts, the Daur tribe uses bile (for example, from bear, pig, and sheep) the most. The next most commonly used animal-derived medicines are made from bone, followed by those made from meat, and those that use the whole body of the animal. The most widely used families for animal-based drugs are Corvidae (crows) (four species), followed by Anatidae (ducks), Canidae (canines), and Bovidae (bovines) (three species each). Animal-based medicines are mainly composed of kidney, liver, gallbladder, heart, sac, uterus, and other organs, and are widely administered. With respect to the animals used, mammals dominate, accounting for 14 species (66.6%), followed by birds (five species, 23.8%) and amphibians (one species, 4.8%).