Pulverization is an essential process for recycling marine waste. It turns processed plastics into different products in a single form, allowing for consistency in subsequent processes. Furthermore, this pre-treatment process can be more economical and efficient if the energy required to collect and preprocess MD is from surplus resources. For example, refrigeration using LCE can reduce initial investment and maintenance costs due to the simplification of facilities. In addition, using the existing refrigerant circulation system for the condensation–expansion process when using surplus LCE does not require additional equipment. Figure 2 shows the layout of the main facilities of an MD collection and cleaning ship equipped with an LTP facility. The facility is divided into two parts. The first is the propulsion part containing the LNG fuel tank. According to the eco-friendly trend in shipbuilding, MD collection and cleaning vessels are using LNG as fuel. LNG in the cryogenic state causes phase changes in the fuel gas supply system (FGSS), resulting in heat exchange. The gas is then combusted to generate the energy needed for power. Propulsion can also be carried out through the direct internal combustion of LNG, but in ships such as ferries, electric propulsion is also applied using an LNG power generator 47,48. The second is the MD disposal part. In floating MD, collection through a conveyor is effective and can operate at a constant rate to bring the debris from the ocean directly to the storage cargo hold 49. Furthermore, magnetic separators and dechlorination facilities are included. A detailed description of the pulverization process will be provided later (see Fig. 6).
Figure 3 shows a detailed schematic diagram of the system used to freeze MD for LTP. LNG lowers the temperature of ethylene glycol water (EGW) in the heat exchanger of the FGSS 50. Ethylene glycol is typically used as a heat transfer medium owing to its low freezing point, which suits the low-temperature condition of the LNG stream 35. Therefore, cold air with the circulating EGW decreases the temperature of MD via contact (i.e., air-blast method). As a result, MD is frozen to a brittle temperature. Furthermore, this LTP system (upper-right side of Fig. 3) supplies continuous cold energy without a heat exchanger.
To evaluate its potential cooling capacity and feasibility, we constructed a prototypical LNG propulsion cleaning ship with proper parameters. The ship has a cargo capacity of 1,300 m3 for loading MD and is equipped with an LTP facility capable of handling 20 tons of MD per day. The LTP facility operates in two units for cleaning efficiency, considering an eight-hour workload per day. Table 1 lists the specifications of the prototypical cleaning ship. Based on the ship’s specification, the heat transfer rate for freezing MD is calculated as follows:
Table 1
Principal particulars of prototypical cleaning vessel
Particulars
|
Specification
|
Unit
|
Engine type
|
Himsen 5H22CDFP
|
-
|
Engine rated power
|
2,200
|
kW
|
LNG Fuel Tank
|
250 x 2
|
m3
|
LNG Pressure
|
5
|
bar
|
Design Maximum Speed
|
11.5
|
knots
|
Cruising Distance
|
2,200
|
NM
|
Cargo Volume
|
1,300
|
m3
|
Work Capacity
|
20
|
Ton/day
|
$${\dot {Q}_{MD}}={\dot {m}_{LNG}}({h_{out}} - {h_{in}})$$
1
where QMD represents the heat transfer rate in the freezing chamber, and hout and hin represent specific enthalpy at the outlet and inlet of the heat exchanger. In this calculation, the temperature of the LNG at the outlet was fixed at 268 K, and the system assumed adiabatic behavior 51. Table 2 lists the embrittlement temperature and the specific heat of the test plastics52 − 56. The target temperature for pulverization was assumed to be the ductile–brittle transition temperature (DBTT). DBTT studies on many plastics have been performed. In this study, all plastics were assumed to be polyethylene to calculate the maximum refrigerant needed to reach DBTT. Additionally, to compare the efficiency of cooling systems, refrigerant consumption was calculated for liquid nitrogen (LN2). Eq. (2) shows the relationship in the amount of refrigerant used for the LTP of plastics 57;
Table 2
Properties of plastics applied to freezing and pulverizing
Polymer
|
DBTT (℃)
|
Specific heat (J/kgK)
|
Reference
|
PA
|
230
|
1700
|
52
|
PE
|
230
|
1900
|
53
|
PET
|
240
|
1200
|
54
|
PP
|
250
|
1700
|
55
|
PVC
|
270
|
1250
|
56
|
$$M{C_{pM}}({T_i} - {T_s})=G{C_{pR}}({T_{gO}} - 77.4)$$
2
where M is the flow rate of MD (kg/h m2), CpM is the specific heat of MD (J/kg K), Ti is the inlet temperature of MD (K), Ts is the temperature of MD at the end of the pre-cooling section (K), G is the flow of refrigerant (kg/h m2), CpR is the specific heat of refrigerant (J/kg K), and TgO is the outlet temperature of refrigerant (K).
If the flow rate of MD is expressed as the ratio of refrigerant flow, the amount of refrigerant needed to pulverize MD (i.e., M/G) can be calculated as follows;
$$\frac{M}{G}={C_{pR}}({T_{gO}} - 77.4)/{C_{pM}}({T_i} - {T_s})$$
3
.It is worth noting that the available LCE for MD collection and cleaning is limited when the cleaning ship moves at a relatively low speed because of the less excessive LCE. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the MD freezing capacity depending on the speed of a ship, which can be calculated from the fuel consumption. Assuming the prototypical ship is equipped with a Himsen engine (Hyundai Heavy Industry, HHI) and its specific gas consumption (SGC) based on maximum continuous rating (MCR) is 163.42 g/kWh, the amount of freezing capacity using LCE per hour (WLCE) according to the output of the ship (PE) is as follows;
$${W}_{LCE}=\frac{{h}_{{out}}-{h}_{in}}{{C}_{pM}({T}_{i}-{T}_{s})}\times SGC\times {P}_{E}$$
4Furthermore, PE is proportional to v3, where v is the ship's speed 58. Figure 4 shows the calculated WLCE depending on the ship’s speed, v. It is worth noting that the estimated WLCE based on MCR, which is less than 10% (around 5 knots in this study), is inaccurate. Therefore, the minimum speed for collecting marine waste is assumed to be 5 knots. In addition, MD collection and LTP are independent processes, suggesting that two processes can be done simultaneously (i.e., independently) when a ship is in operation. However, much fuel is consumed when a ship sails at a high output after MD collection. For example, 1,858 kg of MD can be frozen per hour at the speed of 10 knots/2831 kg at the design speed. Therefore, more effective LTP can be done at a high speed.
In general, MD collection ships need to stay in the ocean for a long time compared to merchant and passenger ships. Therefore, the targeted collection area and LTP throughput should be designed by adjusting the size of the LNG fuel tank. Considering that optimal MD collection is operated at speeds of 5 knots or less, it is possible to freeze up to 250 kg of MD per hour without any additional energy. Therefore, if an additional refrigerant (e.g., LN2) is used, the extra MD can be frozen and pulverized. The additional amount of liquid nitrogen (WLN2), needed for overflow MD freezing and pulverizing can be derived as follows from Equations (3) and (4):
$${W_{LN2}}={W_{LCE}} \times \frac{M}{G}+MFC$$
5
where MFC means the minimum freezing capacity according to the MCR. The correlation between WLN2 and WLCE for various MCR is shown in Fig. 5. The slop (M/G) is constant regardless of the percentage of MCR expected. Suppose the ship is not in operation (i.e., MCR = 0%). Then, MD should be frozen through LN2 only. However, if an MD collection ship increases the power output, the LCE replaces LN2. For example, it is possible to freeze 246 kg (514 kg) of MD per hour at an output of 10% (20%) MCR without additional refrigerant. The corresponding ship’s speed for each output is 5.34 knots for 10% MCR and 6.73 knots for 20% MCR.
Figure 6 shows the detailed LTP process of MD using LCE. The collected waste is classified into MD and marine organisms. Since marine organisms such as echinoderms and seaweeds inhabit the seabed, they should be separated. Further, among the classified MD, fiber-type waste, such as dumped fishing nets or rope, are sorted out because entanglement and overload can be induced in the shredding and grinding process 59. In addition, floating MD may contain metals and/or other high-density materials. In the case of wasted metals, the magnetic separator is used to filter out any pieces. At the same time, high-density materials should be separated through specific gravity sorting prior to the cutting process. The remaining MD is primarily crushed by a shredding machine. The shredding machine has the advantage of a high grinding capacity. However, the ground particle size is relatively large at ~ 50 mm 60. Therefore, improving the LTP efficiency requires further processing to a particle size of 20 mm or less. To do this, the particles are stored in a low-temperature freezer (e.g., ~ 233 K) for a while prior to the LTP process. To lower the refrigerant temperature in the freezer, the LCE, which is waste energy, is supplied to the FGSS.
Some collected plastic MD contains chlorine. For example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a TP amorphous with a high molecular compound used in various places due to its low price, rigidity, and high immutability 61. However, since PVC contains chlorine, many toxic substances such as dioxins and furans may be generated during incineration and thermal decomposition. Therefore, a separate dechlorination process is required 62. In addition, electrochemical treatment is essential due to the high salinity of MD and wastewater generated from the pulverizing process. IrO2 electrodes have been widely used for wastewater desalination. However, boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes were developed to generate strong oxidizing agents such as OH-. Strong oxidants can react with Cl in plastics (or Cl- of waste seawater) to produce additional oxidants such as hypochlorous acid (HCLO) and perchlorate (CLO4−), which can remove chlorine. Figure 7 shows the schematics of drum-type capacitive dichlorination (CD) equipment with a ball mill reactor and the detailed chemical process related to dichlorination. Drum-type dechlorination facilities are designed to perform plastic dechlorination treatments at a 470 K or higher temperature with BDD electrodes.